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Another explanation for bullying behavior may be the ''social brain hypothesis'' which posits that the competitive cognitive demands of sociality have driven the evolution of enlarged brains in some mammals, especially in primates. | Another explanation for bullying behavior may be the ''social brain hypothesis'' which posits that the competitive cognitive demands of sociality have driven the evolution of enlarged brains in some mammals, especially in primates. | ||
Machiavellianism in particular may serve to assist individuals in negotiating their social world (Turpin, 2021), explaining the general prevalence of Machiavellianism as evidenced by high rates of [[mate poaching]] in the overall population, and Machiavellianism not even being linked to evolutionarily more ancient fast life history strategies, despite being | Machiavellianism in particular may serve to assist individuals in negotiating their social world (Turpin, 2021), explaining the general prevalence of Machiavellianism as evidenced by high rates of [[mate poaching]] in the overall population, and Machiavellianism not even being linked to evolutionarily more ancient fast [[life history]] strategies, despite being one of the [[dark triad|"dark" personality traits]] and these traits having been linked to lower parental investment (Davis, 2019). However, notably only the calculated and manipulative aspect of Machiavellianism such as lying effectively is actually linked to higher general intelligence (Zhang, 2018), but nonetheless such competition might select for higher specialized/non-general, especially verbal skills which require to be accommodated by more neuronal capacity and larger, more complex brains. | ||
Selection for socially complex, Machiavellian behavior would act at multiple levels, from intrasexual to intragroup to intergroup competition, and bullying behavior toward the neurodivergent might be explained by such individuals being particularly easy prey of Machiavellian | Selection for socially complex, Machiavellian behavior would act at multiple levels, from intrasexual to intragroup to intergroup competition, and bullying behavior toward the neurodivergent might be explained by such individuals being particularly easy prey of Machiavellian and socially competitive behavior. | ||
Apart from | Apart from competition, bullying might also play a role in socially synergistic behavior. In particular, bullying may prevent from individuals straying away from the group's shared goals and values thereby increasing the group's cohesion, and might also ensure a high level of body hygiene thereby increasing the group's parasite resistance. | ||
More speculatively, bullying and avoidance of the [[neurodivergent]] may be an instance of [[wikipedia:Behavioral immune system|behavioral immune system]], i.e. adaptations that lower the risk the of becoming infected by neurotoxic or neuroactive infectious diseases (Curtis, 2011). Parasites alone account for 67% of the worldwide variation in intelligence and the virus ''toxoplasma gondii'' has been suspected to be linked to schizophrenia and lowered IQ (Willyard, 2010, Hunter, 2012). | More speculatively, bullying and avoidance of the [[neurodivergent]] may be an instance of [[wikipedia:Behavioral immune system|behavioral immune system]], i.e. adaptations that lower the risk the of becoming infected by neurotoxic or neuroactive infectious diseases (Curtis, 2011). Parasites alone account for 67% of the worldwide variation in intelligence and the virus ''toxoplasma gondii'' has been suspected to be linked to schizophrenia and lowered IQ (Willyard, 2010, Hunter, 2012). On the other hand, despite much lower parasite load in modern populations, [[IQ]] has decreased rather than increased (possibly due to [[mutational load]] rather than [[feminization|neurotoxins]]; see Sarraf, 2018, or due to the [[steeling effect]]). | ||
The general implication of this research is that bullying, at least partially, represents an innate evolutionary adaption. Since this behavior appears highly effective at getting men things they generally desire immensely (women, resources, peer status) efforts to eliminate bullying completely (e.g., 'zero tolerance' policies for bullying) seem quite futile and overly idealistic. Programs that genuinely seek to reduce incidences of bullying will likely need to acknowledge the role of genetics in causing this behavior to begin with and will need to acknowledge (and attempt to counter) the clear evolutionary and social benefits of bullying in order to have any chance of succeeding. | The general implication of this research is that bullying, at least partially, represents an innate evolutionary adaption. Since this behavior appears highly effective at getting men things they generally desire immensely (women, resources, peer status) efforts to eliminate bullying completely (e.g., 'zero tolerance' policies for bullying) seem quite futile and overly idealistic. Programs that genuinely seek to reduce incidences of bullying will likely need to acknowledge the role of genetics in causing this behavior to begin with and will need to acknowledge (and attempt to counter) the clear evolutionary and social benefits of bullying in order to have any chance of succeeding. | ||
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* Hunter, P. (2012). ''What doesn’t kill you makes you dumber.'' EMBO Reports, 13(5), 469–469. [[http://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2012.46 Abstract]] | * Hunter, P. (2012). ''What doesn’t kill you makes you dumber.'' EMBO Reports, 13(5), 469–469. [[http://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2012.46 Abstract]] | ||
* Willyard C. 2010. ''Do Parasites Make You Dumber?'' [[https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/06/do-parasites-make-you-dumber Article]] | * Willyard C. 2010. ''Do Parasites Make You Dumber?'' [[https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/06/do-parasites-make-you-dumber Article]] | ||
* Sarraf, M. A., Peñaherrera-Aguirre, M., Fernandes, H. B., & Becker, D. (2018). What caused over a century of decline in general intelligence? Testing predictions from the genetic selection and neurotoxin hypotheses. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4(3), 272-284. [[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-017-0131-7 Abstract]] | |||
===<span style="font-family:'Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif'; font-size: 24px; line-height: 1.2; font-weight: normal;" id="More_than_half_of_prison_staff_sexual_misconduct_involves_female_guards.2Fstaff">More than half of prison staff sexual misconduct involves female guards/staff</span>=== | ===<span style="font-family:'Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif'; font-size: 24px; line-height: 1.2; font-weight: normal;" id="More_than_half_of_prison_staff_sexual_misconduct_involves_female_guards.2Fstaff">More than half of prison staff sexual misconduct involves female guards/staff</span>=== |