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Additionally, homosexuality and androphilia are somewhat heritable (around 40%),<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9251839</ref><ref>http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=2449185</ref> all of which suggests homosexuality is an adaptation, i.e. that it increased men's [[reproductive success]] in the past. | Additionally, homosexuality and androphilia are somewhat heritable (around 40%),<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9251839</ref><ref>http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=2449185</ref> all of which suggests homosexuality is an adaptation, i.e. that it increased men's [[reproductive success]] in the past. | ||
=== | One can broadly divide the hypothesized adaptations for male androphilia into ''slow'' and ''fast'' [[life history]] adaptations, where fast life history means low investment in the offspring and slow life history means high investment. Fast life history adaptations tend to be more violent, primitive, degenerate, accompanied by earlier maturation, less social investments, lower cultural sophistication and a higher [[sex drive]]. | ||
=== Fast life-history adaptations === | |||
There are various conceivable pathways toward increased reproductive success (RS) through homosexual behavior in terms of the dominant vs submissive dichotomy, explaining homosexuality as an evolved behavior. | There are various conceivable pathways toward increased reproductive success (RS) through homosexual behavior in terms of the dominant vs submissive dichotomy, explaining homosexuality as an evolved behavior. | ||
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=== | === Slow life-history adaptations === | ||
Rather than just one cause, multiple causes and adaptive pressures may be involved in the phenomenon of male homosexuality. Few of these explanations are mutually exclusive. | Rather than just one cause, multiple causes and adaptive pressures may be involved in the phenomenon of male homosexuality. Few of these explanations are mutually exclusive. | ||
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*'''Self-domestication''': It has been suggested in recent human history, human males have been substantially selected to be nice to one another (domestication), with homosociality being one instance thereof and in which homosexuality serves as a means of bonding via intimacy.<ref>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02955/full</ref> This largely overlaps with the notion of alliances in Muscarella's theory. | *'''Self-domestication''': It has been suggested in recent human history, human males have been substantially selected to be nice to one another (domestication), with homosociality being one instance thereof and in which homosexuality serves as a means of bonding via intimacy.<ref>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02955/full</ref> This largely overlaps with the notion of alliances in Muscarella's theory. | ||
*'''Helper in the nest''': This hypothesis claims that gay males tend to help in the household increasing the [[reproductive success]] of siblings,<ref name="ref42"></ref>, helping relatives to survive by allocating to them material resources, childcare, and protection being freed from the burden of caring for one's own offspring,<ref>Wilson, E. O. (1975). ''Sociobiology: The new synthesis.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref><ref>Wilson, E. O. (1978). ''On human nature.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press</ref> however homosexuals do not actually seem to exhibit more kinship behavior.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/J_Bailey2/publication/247233162_Is_male_homosexuality_maintained_via_kin_selection/links/5a09db03aca272d40f411b26/Is-male-homosexuality-maintained-via-kin-selection.pdf</ref> This also does not really explain bisexuality. Exclusive homosexuality is also rare, so this cannot be a strong selective pressure. | *'''Helper in the nest''': This hypothesis claims that gay males tend to help in the household increasing the [[reproductive success]] of siblings,<ref name="ref42"></ref>, helping relatives to survive by allocating to them material resources, childcare, and protection being freed from the burden of caring for one's own offspring,<ref>Wilson, E. O. (1975). ''Sociobiology: The new synthesis.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref><ref>Wilson, E. O. (1978). ''On human nature.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press</ref> however homosexuals do not actually seem to exhibit more kinship behavior.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/J_Bailey2/publication/247233162_Is_male_homosexuality_maintained_via_kin_selection/links/5a09db03aca272d40f411b26/Is-male-homosexuality-maintained-via-kin-selection.pdf</ref> This also does not really explain bisexuality. Exclusive homosexuality is also rare, so this cannot be a strong selective pressure. | ||
=== Other adaptations === | |||
*'''Feminization advantage for female relatives''': Homosexuals presumably being more feminine may confer an increased fecundity in the females related to the homosexual (feminine) genes from (related to selection-mutation balance). | *'''Feminization advantage for female relatives''': Homosexuals presumably being more feminine may confer an increased fecundity in the females related to the homosexual (feminine) genes from (related to selection-mutation balance). | ||
*'''Selection-mutation balance''': [[Mutation]]s occur naturally. Hence some number of males are expected to express androphilia, but sexual selection will rule out mutations over time as best as it can, but it cannot be ruled entirely as mutations are unpredictable and some amount of mutation is useful to adapt to environmental changes and outcompete other species, hence a balance between mutation and selection is maintained. | *'''Selection-mutation balance''': [[Mutation]]s occur naturally. Hence some number of males are expected to express androphilia, but sexual selection will rule out mutations over time as best as it can, but it cannot be ruled entirely as mutations are unpredictable and some amount of mutation is useful to adapt to environmental changes and outcompete other species, hence a balance between mutation and selection is maintained. | ||