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Karmin et al. (2015) analyzed the genetic diversity of exclusively male and female parts of the DNA (male Y chromosome and female mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) to estimate effective population sizes of both sexes throughout human history. The analysis revealed the following:
Karmin et al. (2015) analyzed the genetic diversity of exclusively male and female parts of the DNA (male Y chromosome and female mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) to estimate effective population sizes of both sexes throughout human history. The analysis revealed the following:
* 8-4 thousand years ago, around the time Agricultural Civilization began to emerge, women's effective population size grew substantially to around 17 times the size of men's.
* 4,000 to 8,000 years ago, women's effective population size grew substantially to around 17 times the size of men's.
* This disparity can possibly be explained by increasingly polygynous mating practices that resulted from increased wealth and wealth inequality between men.
* A conceivable explanation is increasingly polygynous mating practices enabled by the power concentration and wealth of farmers. Hereditary systems of political and religious succession, e.g. chiefdoms, hereditary priesthood, early monarchies, also likely contributed to increasing wealth inequality an variance of reproductive success between among families if different economic standing.
* The development of agriculture and more centralized political systems led to greater variance in male fitness due to inheritance of resources and social status (hereditary systems of political and religious succession, i.e chiefdoms, hereditary priesthood, early monarchies).
* Societies that practice monogamy tend to show roughly equal ratios of male to female reproductive success, while societies that favor serial monogamy or polygyny tend to cause more variation in male reproductive success, while not affecting female success in the same way.


Note: This study was misquoted by Pacific Standard (psmag.com) to imply that ''17 women reproduced for every one man''. In truth, only the ''effective population size'' of women was 17 times as large as men's. The effective population size does not clearly distinguish parents and their offspring due to the similarity of their genes. A man with 20 children, each of which has 10 children in turn, would not contribute with 1 + 20 × 10 individuals to the effective population size, but considerably less than that. Anyhow, the result still points to substantial sex differences in variance of reproductive success. Reputed social psychology professor Roy Baumeister, estimated the sex ratio of historical reproductive success to be 2:1. Half the branches on a tree of ancestors represent males, but half of the males are repeats. The observation that males (humans and in the animal kingdom in general) exhibit a greater variance in reproductive success as compared to females is known as [[Bateman's Principle]].
Note: This study was ''misquoted'' by Pacific Standard (psmag.com) and others to imply that ''17 women reproduced for every one man'' (see Cochran, 2015). In truth, only the ''effective population size'' of women was 17 times as large as men's. The effective population size does not clearly distinguish parents and their offspring due to the similarity of their genes. A man with 20 children, each of which has 10 children in turn, would not contribute with 1 + 20 × 10 individuals to the effective population size, but considerably less than that, hence increasing the F:M ratio. The result still points to substantial sex differences in variance of reproductive success. Reputed social psychology professor Roy Baumeister, estimated the sex ratio of historical reproductive success to be 2:1. Half the branches on a tree of ancestors represent males, but half of the males are repeats. Possibly 80% of women, but only 40% of men have reproduced. The observation that males (humans and in the animal kingdom in general) exhibit a greater variance in reproductive success as compared to females is known as [[Bateman's Principle]].


<span style="font-size:125%">'''Quotes:'''</span>
<span style="font-size:125%">'''Quotes:'''</span>
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*Diep F. 2017. ''8,000 Years Ago, 17 Women Reproduced for Every One Man.'' Pacific Standard. [[https://psmag.com/environment/17-to-1-reproductive-success News]]
*Diep F. 2017. ''8,000 Years Ago, 17 Women Reproduced for Every One Man.'' Pacific Standard. [[https://psmag.com/environment/17-to-1-reproductive-success News]]
*Wilder JA, Mobasher Z, Hammer MF. 2004. ''Genetic Evidence for Unequal Effective Population Sizes of Human Females and Males.'' Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21(11): 2047–2057. [[https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/21/11/2047/1147770#20340635 FullText]]
*Wilder JA, Mobasher Z, Hammer MF. 2004. ''Genetic Evidence for Unequal Effective Population Sizes of Human Females and Males.'' Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21(11): 2047–2057. [[https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/21/11/2047/1147770#20340635 FullText]]
*Baumeister R. 2007. ''Is There Anything Good About Men?'' [[https://psy.fsu.edu/~baumeisterticelab/goodaboutmen.htm FullText]] ''The missing men in your family tree''. [[https://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/09/05/the-missing-men-in-your-family-tree FullText]]
*Baumeister R. 2007. ''Is There Anything Good About Men?'' [[https://psy.fsu.edu/~baumeisterticelab/goodaboutmen.htm FullText]], ''The missing men in your family tree''. [[https://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/09/05/the-missing-men-in-your-family-tree FullText]]
* Cochran G. 2015. ''Y-chromosome crash''. [[https://westhunt.wordpress.com/2015/03/21/y-chromosome-crash/ FullText]]


===<span style="font-family:'Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif'; font-size:24px; font-weight: normal;">Women bitterly reject unattractive men after facing rejection themselves by an attractive man</span>===
===<span style="font-family:'Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif'; font-size:24px; font-weight: normal;">Women bitterly reject unattractive men after facing rejection themselves by an attractive man</span>===
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