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[[File:FWHR-Carré-2008.gif|thumb|right]] | [[File:FWHR-Carré-2008.gif|thumb|right]] | ||
'''Facial width-to-height ratio''' (or short '''FWHR'''), measures how broad the face is in relation to the | '''Facial width-to-height ratio''' (or short '''FWHR'''), is a facial ratio that measures how broad the face is (from cheek to cheek) in relation to the height of the midface (which varies by the method used to measure this, see below for details). FWHR was only discovered in the last few years but in that short amount of time it has been found in some studies that fWHR is correlated with such things as dominance, aggression, psychopathy, dark triad traits in general, short term attraction, fighting ability, physical robustness, financial success, academic success, risk-taking behavior, trustworthiness, sex drive, status, and prenatal testosterone exposure and/or adult testosterone levels. | ||
While some of these findings have been replicated, others have been criticized on methodological grounds, or have flatly failed to replicate, such as the purported link between fWHR and adolescent or adult serum testosterone levels.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310461784_Commentary_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_fWHR_Is_Not_Associated_with_Adolescent_Testosterone_Levels</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329686209_Further_Evidence_that_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_and_Global_Facial_Masculinity_Are_Not_Positively_Associated_with_Testosterone_Levels</ref> | While some of these findings have been replicated, others have been criticized on methodological grounds, or have flatly failed to replicate, such as the purported link between fWHR and adolescent or adult serum testosterone levels.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310461784_Commentary_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_fWHR_Is_Not_Associated_with_Adolescent_Testosterone_Levels</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329686209_Further_Evidence_that_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_and_Global_Facial_Masculinity_Are_Not_Positively_Associated_with_Testosterone_Levels</ref> | ||
Some studies have also found no significant association between fWHR and anti-social behavior (among business executives), <ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333685699_A_Case_of_Evolutionary_Mismatch_Why_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_May_Not_Predict_Behavioral_Tendencies</ref> or socio-sexuality (promiscuous sexual behavior and unrestrained attitudes towards casual sex) in women.<ref>https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200308</ref> | Some studies have also found no significant association between fWHR and anti-social behavior (among business executives), <ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333685699_A_Case_of_Evolutionary_Mismatch_Why_Facial_Width-to-Height_Ratio_May_Not_Predict_Behavioral_Tendencies</ref> or socio-sexuality (promiscuous sexual behavior and unrestrained attitudes towards casual sex) in women.<ref>https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200308</ref> | ||
The purported link between greater fWHR and aggressive behavior may be hard to discern accurately in large, varied samples, as there is preliminary evidence that a man's social status may play a role in | The purported link between greater fWHR and aggressive behavior may be hard to discern accurately in large, varied samples, as there is preliminary evidence that a man's social status may play a role in moderating the apparent positive relationship between fWHR and aggressive, anti-social behavior and traits. One group of researchers in 2018 only found evidence for a positive association between fWHR and [[dark triad]] traits and physical aggression among lower-income men.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30412629</ref> | ||
FWHR does not seem to be sexually dimorphic,<ref>Lefevre, C. E., Lewis, G. J., Bates, T. C., Dzhelyova, M., Coetzee, V., Deary, I. J., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). No evidence for [[sexual dimorphism]] of facial width-to-height ratio in four large adult samples. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(6), 623-627</ref> although the negative association between fWHR and risk of dying from contact-violence is<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233757330_Male_facial_width_is_associated_with_death_by_contact_violence_Narrow-faced_males_are_more_likely_to_die_from_contact_violence</ref> and perceptions of the social dominance of individuals with greater | FWHR does not seem to be sexually dimorphic,<ref>Lefevre, C. E., Lewis, G. J., Bates, T. C., Dzhelyova, M., Coetzee, V., Deary, I. J., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). No evidence for [[sexual dimorphism]] of facial width-to-height ratio in four large adult samples. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33(6), 623-627</ref> although the negative association between fWHR and risk of dying from contact-violence is<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233757330_Male_facial_width_is_associated_with_death_by_contact_violence_Narrow-faced_males_are_more_likely_to_die_from_contact_violence</ref> and perceptions of the social dominance of individuals with a greater fWHR are also,<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886914003031</ref> suggesting that fWHR does play a role in intrasexual competition among men(in contemporary contexts), and as such a higher fWHR may be associated with traits that have been under sexual or natural selective pressures in human evolutionary history.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Barnaby_Dixson/publication/313797888_Facial_Width_to_Height_Ratio_and_Dominance/links/5a395640aca272eb167466a9/Facial-Width-to-Height-Ratio-and-Dominance.pdf</ref> | ||
==fWHR and aesthetics== | ==fWHR and aesthetics== | ||
Despite the considerable hype surrounding fWHR in circles concerned with aesthetics, there is a lack of evidence directly linking this trait to perceptions of greater male physical attractiveness. A speed dating study conducted in 2014 found a link between higher fWHR in the male participants and greater short-term relationship desirability but this was found to be mediated by perceptions of dominance, as there was no significant correlation between fWHR and women's ratings of the men's physical attractiveness.<ref>https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2727&context=soss_research Valentine KA, Norman PLI, Penke L, Perret DI. 2014. Judging a Man by the Width of his Face: The Role of Facial Ratios and Dominance in Mate Choice at Speed-Dating Events. Psychological Science. 25(3): 806-811</ref> Some studies have even found a weak negative correlation between greater fWHR and physical attractiveness (''r̄'' = -.26).<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4504483/</ref> This may be partially due to the link between greater fWHR and greater levels of facial adiposity.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20301846/</ref> | Despite the considerable hype surrounding fWHR in circles concerned with aesthetics, there is a lack of evidence directly linking this trait to perceptions of greater male physical attractiveness. A speed dating study conducted in 2014 found a link between higher fWHR in the male participants and greater short-term relationship desirability, but this was found to be mediated by perceptions of dominance, as there was no significant correlation between fWHR and women's ratings of the men's physical attractiveness.<ref>https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2727&context=soss_research Valentine KA, Norman PLI, Penke L, Perret DI. 2014. Judging a Man by the Width of his Face: The Role of Facial Ratios and Dominance in Mate Choice at Speed-Dating Events. Psychological Science. 25(3): 806-811</ref> Some studies have even found a weak negative correlation between greater fWHR and physical attractiveness (''r̄'' = -.26).<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4504483/</ref> This may be partially due to the link between greater fWHR and greater levels of facial adiposity.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20301846/</ref> | ||
It also seems unclear as to whether or to what extent a higher fWHR is associated with facial masculinity. Researchers in 2015 has found no positive link between fWHR and rater's evaluations of men's facial masculinity.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513814001640</ref> | It also seems unclear as to whether or to what extent a higher fWHR is associated with facial masculinity. Researchers in 2015 has found no positive link between fWHR and rater's evaluations of men's facial masculinity.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513814001640</ref> | ||
Another set of researchers also discovered fWHR was ''negatively'' correlated with 'global facial masculinity' in their dataset (N = 188, r = -0.32).<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513813000275</ref> This may have been confounded somewhat by the positive association between fWHR and greater levels of facial fat, which is a feminine | Another set of researchers also discovered fWHR was ''negatively'' correlated with 'global facial masculinity' in their dataset (N = 188, r = -0.32).<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513813000275</ref> This may have been confounded somewhat by the positive association between fWHR and greater levels of facial fat, which is a feminine sexually dimorphic trait, derived from the influence women's higher estrogen levels have on their levels of subcutaneous fat and the distribution of said fat. The researchers controlled for BMI but not for facial adiposity in particular. | ||
==fWHR and social perceptions== | ==fWHR and social perceptions== | ||
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Perhaps the link between fWHR and social status attainment is dependent on whether the context in which such status is attained rewards pro-social traits, such as likability and perceived trustworthiness or more anti-social/competitive traits such as mere physical dominance and threat potential. | Perhaps the link between fWHR and social status attainment is dependent on whether the context in which such status is attained rewards pro-social traits, such as likability and perceived trustworthiness or more anti-social/competitive traits such as mere physical dominance and threat potential. | ||
Indeed, it has been shown that people display a preference for men with greater fWHR in contexts of physical competition, and intergroup competition (such as contact sports).<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103115000293</ref> | Indeed, it has been shown that people display a preference for men with greater fWHR in contexts of physical competition, and intergroup competition (such as contact sports).<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103115000293</ref> | ||
This may be due to people being more comfortable with aggression toward the | This may be due to people being more comfortable with aggression toward the out-group as opposed to within the in-group (as fWHR is moderately positively correlated with perceptions of aggressiveness), <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513814001640</ref> or it may simply be down to the fact that men with higher fWHRs are *actually* more likely to triumph in intergroup conflicts. A study conducted in 2018 provides support for this hypothesis, as it was found that groups of Chinese business executives with a higher mean fWHR outcompeted other groups in business negotiations.<ref>https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-08880-001</ref> | ||
These negative perceptions can have serious consequences in affecting the decisions people make based on their instinctive appraisals of these men, as people appear to generally treat men with higher fWHR in accord with their superficial negative perceptions of them. This has been found in experimental economic games that involve co-operation and bargaining, such as the one-shot ultimate game, and economic games that involve the choice to either co-operate with, or | These negative perceptions can have serious consequences in affecting the decisions people make based on their instinctive appraisals of these men, as people appear to generally treat men with higher fWHR in accord with their superficial negative perceptions of them. This has been found in experimental economic games that involve co-operation and bargaining, such as the one-shot ultimate game, and economic games that involve the choice to either co-operate with, or attempt to exploit one's opponent.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513816300411</ref><ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797610362647</ref> | ||
Some have argued that this is due to a feedback loop forming where men with traits that appear to others to denote anti-social and aggressive tendencies (such as a higher fWHR) are more likely to be excluded by peers from co-operative, mutually beneficial exchanges. It is argued that this exclusion may consequently lead these men to be conditioned into behaving in a more exploitative and aggressive manner towards others, in a self-fulfilling prophesy.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756066/</ref> | Some have argued that this is due to a feedback loop forming where men with traits that appear to others to denote anti-social and aggressive tendencies (such as a higher fWHR) are more likely to be excluded by peers from co-operative, mutually beneficial exchanges. It is argued that this exclusion may consequently lead these men to be conditioned into behaving in a more exploitative and aggressive manner towards others, in a self-fulfilling prophesy.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3756066/</ref> | ||